Works of fiction typically contain an element of unreality. In reality, there is no such town as Middlemarch and no such people as the characters of Dorothea or Casuabon who reside in the town. This further suggests that the best way to account for seeing-in is to give an explanation in terms of recognitional ability rather than resemblance. To see how this works, first consider a conversational case. An Aesthetic Definition of Art. In What Is Art, ed. Aesthetics (also spelled sthetics or esthetics) is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, and. For me, there are two constant features: nonexistence and the potential for twofoldness. Levinson, Jerrold. Like the other simple functionalist theories under discussion here, formalism is not just an attempt to define art. The landscape model, so conceived, becomes a version of the artwork model. One is amused by and enjoys the wit. Bottle-rack has a complex form while the mounted Bicycle Wheel has as an elegant one. Who is right here is the main issue. 141 ing of those works. So the suggestion not only seems to solve the problem but seems apt. The Iliad gives us access to conceptions of a variety of value-related matters and the cognitive insight it gives in virtue of this makes it a better work and even enhances our aesthetic engagement with it, but it just does not follow that it does this in virtue of a moral flaw. . In this chapter, we have tried to get a better understanding, not of representation in this broad sense but of fictional representation, especially those found in narrative works. In these cases, the artifact could possess, in a completely straightforward sense, the function or salient property. With this definition too there are various problems. The most prominent among these is an often revised series of conceptions proposed by Monroe Beardsley between 1958 and 1983. Music and the Emotions: The Philosophical Theories. One reaction is to cease to find these beautiful. Suppose, thinking about my own life, I think it contains the stuff of a great narrative. The view that some artworks are structures-in-use is compatible with the idea that one of the things that the artist does in using the structure is to make certain properties normative, that is, prescribe that correct instances of the work have those properties. Here we may have no aesthetic experience of the toaster but we project or predict that we will have one when the toaster is placed in the kitchen. If the valuable experience of a work can have a cognitive or ethical dimension, does that mean that the cognitive or ethical value of a work is part of its artistic value, thereby blurring the lines between different evaluative perspectives? Finally we will see that uncertainty about the objectivity of our evaluations persists in this arena though more so within some parameters of value than others. The Founding of Aesthetics in the German Enlightenment. CHAPTER TWELVE Interaction Ethical, Aesthetic, and Artistic Value In the eighteenth-century novel A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy, Laurence Sterne gives us a portrait of a good man that, for once, is far from boring. So, for example, some might hear Schuberts Death of the Maiden quartet as one of the most powerful expressions of grief-stricken sadness among musical works, while someone else might think it overly dramatic or insufficiently subtle, features which lessen its emotional impact. Kieran is the main proponent of this argument. Chapter 6 contains a critique of this approach. Summary Many works of art are representational in the broad sense sketched at the beginning of chapter. McFee, Graham. Hence, in the case of such works, their moral flaw is essential to their cognitive value, which is part of their artistic value. An example that Kant offers is pleasure found in the green color of a meadow. Aesthetic experience isnt just any pleasurable sensuous experience. There are many who are torn between two worldstraditional and modern, old country and new country, religious and secularwho can no longer enjoy the comforts of one, if it still exists as one knew it, or completely identify with the other. 1974. In fact, a natural object and an artifact might share identical colors, shapes, or patterns. They are also explored in many of the great novels of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries: Anna Karenina, The Brothers Karamazov, Pride and Prejudice, Middlemarch, Howards End, and Women in Love, to mention a few. Fiction and Metaphysics. The other properties I appreciate in the stone are uncontroversially possessed by it. On the other hand, the set of properties essential to understanding and appreciating artworks is far richer than the semantic and pragmatic properties essential to understanding conversational utterances. 2006. Pictorial Art and Visual Experience. British Journal of Aesthetics 40: 2145. Artworks often have the capacity to provide certain benefits when properly appreciated (experienced). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Depiction. Philosophical Review 96:383410. PHILOSOPHY He revels in the thought of his enhanced powers of discrimination, pattern recognition, and so on. It is very hard to believe the statement that it could be true that the pile of rubble is David. . Artworks: Definition, Meaning, Value. Finally, we take up the last view: antirealism about aesthetic properties. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. One exception is Gaut (1998), who includes ethical and cognitive values of art within the idea of aesthetic value. Writers and composers use abstract structures to do something, thereby producing something new: the work, the product of what writers and composers do. Disputes about Art. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 54:15363. The functions of art at a given time are to be identified through an understanding of the art forms central to that time. Is there a rationale for this focus which might help to decide whether architecture is (still) an art form? Sameness and Substance. Speaking of the experience of being bad is my way of describing what is being imagined. Part II below will argue that it is not only problematic but incorrect. 1996. In the case of the Iliad we hypothesized that it is cultural distance that permits moral disapproval of its outlook to have little bearing on that engagement. This was a tragic, though unintended and hard to foresee, consequence of the novel. Two Distinctions in Goodness. In Creating the Kingdom of Ends. Almost any product is made with some regard to making its appearance appealing, and that is an aesthetic concern. Environmental aesthetics, as this topic is also called, is a subject that is attracting increasing attention, perhaps in part because of the potential connection with environmental ethics, a connection that is explored later in the chapter in the section titled Are There Norms of Nature Appreciation? Examining a variety of concrete cases of aesthetic appreciation of this type will prepare the way for the more theoretical examination of conceptions of the aesthetic in chapters 3 and 4. The landscape model is particularly good for noticing certain features of the natural environment. Mimesis as Make-Believe. The account is incomplete until it does this. Many works of pottery are artworks and there are institutional arrangements to display them in museums and galleries, to critically evaluate them, and to place them in a historical context. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Over and over again it describes in great detail the path a spear or arrow takes through a body. ArtPhilosophy. But it is also not a portrait of an actual woman. So wheels and lumps of iron (even wheel-shaped lumps) are both physical objects, but different kinds of physical objects with different kinds of identity conditions. What do poets actually do when they indicate structures? Those who deny (2) would balk at the claim that, when the feeling wells up in us, it is fictional that we feel pity. Second, my discussion might be thought to illustrate the aims of architecture considered as art, and it is far from clear that the present example is of an architectural artwork, or of a building, that has any pretensions of being so considered. It at most implies that interest is primarily satisfied by means of the work itself. The best known and most explicit formalist definition of art belongs to Clive Bell. Defends historical functionalism and provides a wide ranging critique of alternatives. One has to have some experience of these bad things, not just abstract knowledge of their existence, to fully grasp them. A Universal Voice 5. Is this another way that artworks are meaningful? Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Others with more specialized interests will do a better job than I could here. Objects have intentional properties in virtue of expressing some of those psychological states. Its really funny due to the situations in which a good man can entangle himself and from which he must often be extricated. For example, when there is disagreement whether a musical work is powerful the issue will probably not be settled by pointing to its piercing poignancy or even its subtle expression of deep sadness, because these are all evaluative claims that are likely to be disputed. The situation and tasks of the philosophy of art 2. I probably have not done enough to convey my intention and override the contextually supported assumption that I am referring to the offices of the institution financing the purchase. Art and emotion 9. It is the representation of the flaw in a way that allows us to imagine having it that is needed. All three of the models mentioned so far are sometimes associated with a doctrine known as formalism. This doctrine is more commonly directed at art appreciation and claims that, to properly appreciate an artwork, one should attend to its form rather than content, where form is conceived as something immediately available to the senses. 1987. Contempt for a particular race or pleasure in the suffering of others are examples of such attitudes. There are ordinary objects in which, it could be argued, we take an Introduction 3 aesthetic interest but do not deserve to be characterized as either beautiful or sublime. Does it provide an aesthetic experience, and does that experience potentially take in everything mentioned thus far? For example, some mountains are very majestic and the landscape model is ideal for seeing this property of them. This is the minimal view, which says: aesthetic experience is the experience derived from attending in a discriminating manner to forms, qualities, or meaningful features of things, attending to these for their own sake or the sake of the experience. He attempts to make something valuable as art (Budd, 1995, 1) [ital in original]. These include beliefs, intentions, desires, attitudes, emotions, and moods. Aaron Ridley builds an evocation theory of expressiveness on the fact that music presents emotion characteristics in appearance. Kant and Urmson disagree about the characterization of aesthetic experience, but agree that aesthetic judgment has its basis in such experience, which, when the judgment is positive, is some sort of pleasurable experience. Apparently, however, the sunsets we would find the most beautiful are caused by the refraction of light because of higher than normal occurrence of certain kinds of particles in the atmosphere. Having identified it, our job is to figure out what characterizes it and makes it distinct from other modes of representations. 4, 1997, 393402. Some however might argue that such a dismissal could in some circumstance be overhasty. 2002a. 296 References Davies, David. However, I want to leave the hypothetical intentionalist version on the table, because the point to emphasize is that an account of expression can be assimilated to a more general account of work meaning, whichever account proves to be the best. 238 Chapter Eleven This understanding of arts cognitive value is not the only one on offer, and some would like to extend it to make more ambitious claims such as that art is capable of giving us knowledge of one kind or another (D. Davies 2007, Gaut 2007, Nussbaum 1990, Young 2001). Thus, one work is art in virtue of one set of similarities to other works, while another is art in virtue of a different set of similarities. We can represent facts and falsehoods, beliefs and make-believe. It is not even true that if such seeing-in occurs, there is (or was) an object that is F that was photographed. Artistic Value as Aesthetic Value The first place to look for this is in a conception of aesthetic value, because the tradition of thinking about art in terms of the aesthetic provides the most plausible unitary perspective. Kant and the Claims of Taste, 2nd ed. I wont attempt to give a unified account of attitude expression in art that covers all these cases.2 Leaving to one side artistic and aesthetic value, when does the expression of an ethical attitude in an artwork have positive or negative moral value? As Collingwood suggests, one may not only imaginatively experience an emotion in reading a poem, but one might take away from it ways of identifying ones own emotions that break stereotypes and lead to new self-knowledge. The content of these experiences is purportedly the same. One might call this the reverse affective response argument. In fact, one wont find, in these writers, a definition of art, in the sense of an item belonging to the fine arts or of art in its current sense, if that departs from the concept of the fine arts. There are two main problems with this approach. When we turn to the philosophy of art, we are faced with a much wider array of issues. With the latter group, we are surely right to reject the deployment of the distinction. What has he failed to do? 1985. This is demonstrated by the fact that some hold that immoral art has something valuable to offer and should be protected, while others maintain that it should be protected even if it has nothing valuable to offer as a matter of free speech. What is he doing? Defense of literary works as an abstract sequence of symbols. Finally, one can ask why soliciting merely imaginative sympathy for the bad is a moral defect. To put it in Kantian terms, it does not distinguish judgments of agreeableness from judgments of beauty. Second, it displays the common vice of picking out one important property for which we value art, while ignoring others at the cost of excluding not just bad works but many great works. Let us start with the idea of a higher order property, that is, a property that arises in an object on the basis of other properties of the same type. If, in fact, such traits are not virtues but are destructive of social stability and the pursuit of the good life, as Plato believed, then the Iliad would possess an ethical flaw that could diminish its aesthetic value. They would be just as objective and fact-based as any conceptual judgment. In attempting to define art in terms of an institution, Dickie abandons not only the attempt to offer a definition in terms of exhibited features but in terms of functions of any sort. Second, one would expect to find items with striking aesthetic, expressive, or representational qualities, which are either essential to the proper functioning of the items or at least fulfill the artistic functions just mentioned with excellence. This reply brings up another problem. 2000. 3. 1952, 165). From the evolutionary point of view, it is valuable for the usual reason; it is necessary for the survival of the species. What is art? that chapters of the novel and scenes of the movie parallel parts of Homers Odyssey. 1998. Sensibility, Sensitivity, and Aesthetic Realism. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 59:7383. If no, there are not, and then we would have to accept one of the three antirealist views mentioned above: subjectivism, expressivism, or relativism. It is not clear to me that this explains much. Kant suggests that the justification is that others would feel pleasure under the right conditions. For one thing, it is far from clear that all valuable works have cognitive value, or that, among works that have it, this is always where their chief value lies. 1992. It might be objected that the problem here is purely aesthetic: a failure to create a conflict that the story requires. First consider the essentialist conception. Budd seems to think that artworks inherit intrinsic value from the intrinsic value of the experiences they have the capacity to offer to those who understand it. Second, the focus of most discussions of expression has been on attitudes, moods, and emotions rather than beliefs, intentions, and desires. The following examples might be used to challenge such a claim. Apprehension as if: An experience as if one is confronting something in an emotional state without literally doing so. This might happen in the contexts in which one is engaged in a practical pursuit (shopping for a new toaster) or one in which one is taking in sights and sounds for their own sake. According to the essentialist, it can be known a priori that art has these features, based on reflection on the nature of art or on the nature of our interaction with it. Vision and Design. Two broad classes of answers remain. 1993. 4. Picture, Image, and Experience. There are mixed views, according to which, some aesthetic properties are response dependent, while others are not (Levinson 2005). Hence, the pretense is neither needed nor desirable, and may justly be described as a distortion if it is presented as our characteristic mode of aesthetic appreciation of nature. Alternatively, one could claim there are similarities between the visual experience of depictions and the visual experience of the objects or scenes they depict. So the present proposal is at least able to recognize the insights of other views discussed above as well as avoiding their drawbacks. World as Will and Representation, 2 vols., trans. They go to the psychologists lab, experience nothing scintillating, but over a period of several weeks notice the exponential growth of their powers of pattern recognition and perceptual discrimination. The objection claims that there are two possible answers to this question, and neither is palatable to the intentionalist. (This claim would probably have to be further narrowed down to pertain only to a subclass of these novels.) Premises 1 and 2 of this argument are quite plausible, and I will assume they are true. It exhibits or makes manifest the property. A work can also have consequences specifically on individual members of the audience in virtue of experiencing the work. However, even if one thinks of nature as the creation of an intelligent being and as beautiful, it doesnt necessarily follow that it is art. Irony, Metaphor, and the Problem of Intention. In Intention and Interpretation, ed. Since my initial encounter, I have returned many times to the same trail, and, hence, to the house and subdivision in question. However, her primary criterion for being intrinsic is epistemic, namely, how we gain knowledge of the property. . We said in connection with this work that it contains a flawed (though by no means simple or entirely uncritical) moral perspective, which ought not interfere with our aesthetic engagement with the work. But what about after you have acquired this knowledge? It should be easier to reach a answer to the question as to whether a poetic passage expresses an emotion if it is readily read as someones expression of that state (either the utterers, or the implied or actual authors) by a properly backgrounded reader who understands the passage in the context of the whole work and its historical setting. The second is the special significance of that for a particular couple that is based on the special occasion on which the song was heard. On the table, near the fireplace is a manuscript titled A Chronicle. They say that the only truths here are about the plays. On the other hand, suppose, after attending an exhibit of a bisected cow, we say, It was just like visiting the dentist; I hated being there, but Im better off for it. The snowfield at sunset is a more complex object of perception imbued with more aspects than snowfield considered as a mere array of colors. The first step is the familiar claim that one cannot fully understand and appreciate good things such as the delights of friendship and the joy of erotic love without understanding the way such relationships can turn bad through betrayal, jealousy, distrust, fear of commitment, and so on. These properties play a causal role in perceiving the colors and shapes of objects, and my perceiving the color and shapes of objects is causally implicated in my perceiving the elegance and gracefulness of an object. Weitz, Morris. They put words together to make lines, and lines together to make a poem. Others, like being sad, seem to be purely descriptive. 1997. H2O tests involve chemical analysis. This view has notable advantages. . Sometimes nonintentional considerations do so. Goldman, Alan. We have gone one step further here and denied that each of these claims is true. Classic source of antiessentialism. This apparent fact might create a further dissonance with its pretty country setting, this time with ethical overtones, at least if one thinks that unnecessarily large expenditures of energy indicate an indifference to the environment. 1987. Imagine that Joan sets out to write a novel, succeeds as far as she and her publisher are concerned but is also acting on a posthypnotic suggestion of which she has no recollection to faithfully report the life and circumstances of a New England farm family indelibly inscribed in her (subconscious) memory during hypnosis. Perhaps there can be degrees of it, but it is not something that can occur to a very small degree unless one can say that a work has negligible significant form. Certain satisfactions are more process oriented; the satisfaction derived from crossword puzzles is a good example. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. However, what the proponent of such a view would have to argue is that to properly appreciate nature, we have to bring this specific mix of considerations to it, and I am skeptical that this can be done successfully. Original source of selfless absorption. When people express their emotions, they make their feelings manifest to another. For example, when one sees the pinks and golds as snow reflecting light in the winter at sunset, these normally warm colors actually give the scene a colder feel. Selfless Absorption Kant arrived at his conception of the aesthetic at the end of a century of very hard thinking about this concept, and his views at least have the virtue of capturing many of the complex strands of thought that emerged throughout this period. 1998. This view is equipped to answer the first objection to the first recognitional account. Languages of Art. Just as the history of landscape painting is a history of shifting emphases that range from the representation of dramatic storms to quiet, ordinary agricultural scenes, our interest may vary in the views we encounter in nature. Intentionalism in Aesthetics. New Literary History 50:61533. The severe criticism is that all these models distort or misrepresent the proper of appreciation of nature and, thus, should be rejected.3 Let us explore this criticism first, before turning to the more modest objection. We continue to see the cloud and some of its surface features while seeing it as a fox (twofoldness), and in seeing the cloud as a fox we are not actually seeing an animal. There is an analogy here with the cognitive value of uttering truths. Some claim, however, that photography is not a representational medium at all (Scruton 1983) and if this is so, that might be a reason to deny that we see its subjects in the photograph. Wry, witty, amusing, poignant, moving, evocative, vivid, clear, intensifying, and great are among them, and they are good examples of words that stand for aesthetic properties. They were purportedly selected for their lack of aesthetic interest. The columns support a portico, under which is a swimming pool surrounded by a garden. Providing this perspective requires making three points. This Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Art: An Introduction (Elements of Philosophy) book is absolutely not ordinary book, you have it then the world is in your hands. Several distinct issues have emerged in the debate about the nature of art interpretation. The nature of pictorial representation is treated at greater length in this edition with a chapter devoted to this topic. First, is it true that it is part of the experience of a work that one attains moral insight or a refined awareness of human psychology? Bender, John. 5. They would classify neither the responses to fiction nor the simulated emotions occurring in deliberation as true instances of pity or fear. No doubt there are subtle differences in the meaning of different locutions that one might use in stating the argument, but so far I dont see that they would make any significant difference in its evaluation. There can be an alternative explanation for the lack of complete agreement, and one will be mentioned below. It is true that this character is the villain of the piece, who is the contemporary representative of all that is corrupt in the ancient Pyncheon family. It may well coincide with the artists actual intention, but it neednt. Does a meal have aesthetic value? We have also given a role to the more standard views in providing an understanding of the phenomena of hearing emotion in music, and correctly doing so. Gracyck, Ted. Hopkins, Robert. Being a physical object or a structural type does not distinguish artworks from many other objects, which are also physical things or structural types but are not artworks. Summary I have argued that architecture is both an art form and a medium. A critical rationalist aesthetics, Memorable Moments: A Philosophy of Poetry, The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics Gaut&McIver(eds), Special issue of Sztuka i Filozofia on my work on art and beauty, orpheus INsTITuTe serIes Virtual Works Actual Things Essays in Music Ontology, Review of Jonathan Lear's A Case for Irony, Current Streams in American Art Education, Paths from the Philosophy of Art to Everyday Aesthetics (Eds. However we finally wish to express it, it has something to do with a blindness to Lucys mortality, a blindness which a pantheistic conception of the world might promote but could hardly justify in the context of the speakers self-reproach. One hopes that chapter 11 discredited this view. The invention of photography challenges the representational ideal in painting, at least if that is regarded as the increasingly accurate, lifelike depiction of what we see. One is requiring that ones inference adequately takes into account everything relevant to identifying the poems expressive properties, whether it be in the text or part of the historical background. 3. We should conclude that neither the modest nor the ambitious strategy succeeds in showing that all valuable artworks are aesthetically valuable. The latter has defended (2001) yet another version of the argument, but is less sympathetic to it in (2003a, 2003b). The work is not only replaceable by something else that provides the same insight, but even if the source of the insight is the work, once we have it, we dont have to return to that source. However, this requires that some account of these items be provided. . 1993. However, there is no need to choose. But what exactly is the argument behind the attitude? 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